By: Muhammad Afiq Danial Mohd Ridzuan, Cleopatra Abdul Mu'min, Nur Syafiqah Munauwar, Nur Shamila Aida Abdul Samari, Khairun Nisa Abdul Malik and Nurul Ajatul Mustafa
INTRODUCTION
According to National Planning Policy Framework [NPPF] (2012) 'Region characterized on the nearby position's proposition map, including the essential shopping territory and zones transcendently involved by principle town focus utilizes inside or neighboring the essential shopping zone. References to town focuses or focuses apply to downtown areas, town focuses, region focuses and nearby focuses however reject little processions of shops of absolutely neighborhood criticalness. Except if they are distinguished as focuses in Local Plans, existing out-of-focus improvements, containing or including fundamental town community utilizes, don't establish town focuses.'
The purpose of this report is to review the literature review related to how to design a successful town centre with an emphasis on important aspects of urban planning such as land use and building use, economic base, transportation, tourism and recreation, urban design and heritage, social aspects. Besides, this literature review also intended to gain a better understanding of central area planning in a more sustainable, successful, competitive and resilient that can be applied in the study area which is Pekan Kuah, Langkawi
DEFINITION OF TOWN CENTRE
According to Fogelson, Robert M (2003) Downtown is a term essentially utilized in North America to refer to a city's business, social and regularly the political and geographic heart, and is frequently synonymous with its focal business region (CBD). It is set apart by a group of tall structures, social establishments and the intermingling of rail travel and transport lines. In British English, the expression "downtown area" is frequently utilized. The two terms are utilized conversely in Canada.
The Urban Institut [ULI] (2007) defines a town centre is suffering, walkable, and incorporated outdoors, the multiuse improvement that is sorted out around a recognizable and stimulated open domain where residents can accumulate and fortify their locale securities. It is moored by retail, eating, and recreation utilizes, just as by vertical or even private employments. In any event, one other kind of advancement is remembered for a town centre, for example, office, accommodation, city, and social employments. After some time, a town centre ought to advance into the densest, generally smaller, and most different piece of a network, with solid associations with its environment. Besides, the town centre is an area of focus in a particular area because it has a variety of services, access to facilities, commercial centres, public utilities and so on. Besides, the town centre is also an area with many job opportunities, resulting in more population than the rural areas. Furthermore, Town Centre or Central Business District (CBD) is a town that busy and has specialist shops that attract people from all around. For example, Pekan Kuah. Langkawi has many tourist attractions such as Al Hana Mosque, Tax-Free City, Legendary Park, Lang Plaza and more. This has resulted in more tourists coming here as well as boosting the income of Langkawi's economic sector and introducing Langkawi all over the world.
PRINCIPLES OF PLANNING A TOWN CENTRE
According to The Urban Institut [ULI] (2007) the developers, urban planners, and public authorities progressively see the open domain as the absolute most significant component in setting up the character and drawing intensity of an effective town centre. Roads, squares, walkways, city structures, and stopping all have an influence. An all-around structured open domain works as stay, enhancement, and characterizing component for a town centre.
a) CREATE A CENTRAL PLACE FOR THE COMMUNITY
A successful open domain is one in which business, social communication, and recreation time exercises blend effectively in an appealing, person on foot benevolent, outside setting. Individuals are drawn by straightforward happiness regarding being there. On the off chance that that delight is to be felt, the open domain and open spaces must be all around structured and modified.
b) RESPECT MARKET REALITIES
A thriving town focus is very much tuned to the level and nature of the market that bolsters it. Understanding the market involves understanding the populace considers and pay levels as well as development, rivalry, access, and desires. Each arranged segment in a town community ought to be assessed independently to decide its fundamental qualities and the extent of its latent capacity. Be that as it may, at that point all segments must be assessed together to decide their similarity and the blend that works best for every segment while offering an incorporated, enduring condition. The objective is to give a town community that is more noteworthy than the aggregate of its parts.
c) SHARE THE RISK, SHARE THE REWARD
Growing all around structured, effective town communities in some cases requires combining open and private interests and assets so that by sharing the dangers, the prizes can likewise be shared. The customary procedure of improvement is angry—an arm-wrestling challenge between the neighborhood government and the engineer to see which will outwit the other from the procedure. Building up a shared organization game plan can maintain a strategic distance from this lose-lose situation and produce results that advantage all accomplices.
d) PLAN FOR DEVELOPMENT AND FINANCIAL COMPLEXITY
The aspiring size of arranged town habitats frequently requires staging improvement extends following showcase requests. Staging may require distinctive financing procedures because early stages are more dangerous and later stages will be upgraded by the continuous achievement and collaborations of finished tasks. Financing and proprietorship issues around focuses include various degrees of unpredictability past those that happen in most single-use ventures.
e) INTEGRATE MULTIPLE USES
A mixture of uses is one of the most important qualities defining a town centre. Historically, centres of towns or villages have contained a variety of uses that serve the broader community. The “work, live, shop” concept was integral to these centres: uses such as markets, civic buildings, offices, hotels, and urban parks created a vibrant environment that was active during the day and the evening. Besides, residential and office uses are two of the most critical uses for a town centre because they create synergy with retail use, including restaurants (a special subcategory of retail use), add to sidewalk and street traffic contribute to a more complete experience of a neighborhood environment, in the eye of the user and Complement other uses and users
f) BALANCE FLEXIBILITY WITH A LONG-TERM VISION
Long haul vision is the structure, and adaptability is an instrument for actualizing it—together, they give the premise to arranging at the beginning, choices during advancement, and modifications at development.
g) CAPTURE THE BENEFITS THAT DENSITY OFFERS
The advancement of an engaging, energetic town centre requires an all around planned blend of employments at a thickness sufficiently high to accomplish a minimum amount of individuals in the city. A genuinely fruitful town centre will be the most thickly evolved and enthusiastic piece of the network. Moreover, higher thickness makes incredible spots to live, for example, higher thickness makes walk-able neighborhoods and supports lodging decision and reasonableness. Close to that, higher thickness extends transportation decisions, bolsters network monetary well-being and improves security. Besides, higher thickness also ensures the earth around the town centre.
h) CONNECT TO THE COMMUNITY
One of the characterizing attributes of town focus improvements is that they are exceptionally open and have solid associations with the encompassing network. The way that supporters look on town focuses as open focuses, not as oversaw malls or private business improvements, is a significant differentiation. Solid associations with encompassing neighborhoods, business zones, and park frameworks help fortify the view that the town community is available to all clients. A feeling of possession and having a place isolates and portrays town focuses from conventional and way of life based focuses.
i) INVEST FOR SUSTAINABILITY
Sustainability isn't only a popular expression that represents the utilization of green items and insurance of nature. Feasible plan utilizes an all encompassing methodology that incorporates financial and social just as ecological contemplations. The objective of maintainable advancement is to be ecologically capable and genuinely suffering while at the same time performing admirably over the long haul. This sort of accomplishment requires versatility and great monetary and business execution. It likewise implies having a solid and versatile social texture that makes individuals need to be in that spot and come back to it regularly
j) COMMIT TO INTENSIVE ON-SITE MANAGEMENT AND PROGRAMMING
A town centre is in excess of a land improvement. It is intended to be the central core of a network and, in that capacity, it works as an open just as a private spot. Inhabitants and guests to a town community are welcomed 24 hours every day, which implies that administration must be more escalated and progressing than at a strip mall or other sort of business advancement. Since a town centre will be the densest, generally assorted, and most dynamic spot in a network, the board will probably be progressively mind boggling and costly, and it will should be increasingly advanced.
According to Charnwood Borough Council (2000) article, a successful town or city has an away from of course and a broadly shared vision. There is certifiable commitment with networks and initiative at numerous levels. Inventive thoughts are supported and unreservedly traded among individuals and government.
a) LEGIBILITY – A PLACE THAT HAS A CLEAR IMAGE AND IS EASY TO UNDERSTAND
At present the intelligibility of the town community is divided and just because guest, especially while showing up via vehicle, it may not be clear where the town centre is found. There is a need to have visual associations that sew together the town centre toward the north and south of Swan Road.
b) DISTINCTIVENESS – A TOWN CENTRE WITH ITS OWN IDENTITY
A key structure target of the Masterplan is the advancement of character in townscape and scene by reacting to, and fortifying, the locally particular examples of improvement, scene and culture. New advancement ought to advance the characteristics of the Town centre.
c) CONTINUITY & ENCLOSURE – A TOWN CENTRE WHERE PUBLIC AND PRIVATE SPACES ARE CLEARLY DISTINGUISHED
In design and urban structure the centre piece of the town community is generally minimal and fine-grained. All in all, building lines are unmistakably characterized and assembling frontages are adjoining. specifically commercial centre, market road, wards end, high road, church door and baxter entryway have progression of road frontages giving great walled in area. In any case, various regions to the back of these primary roads (for example Wood Door and the rear of Devonshire Square) give poor coherence of road facing. The congruity and walled in area of road frontages is a significant trait of the town centre which must be regarded and fortified in new turn of events.
d) ADAPTABILITY - A PLACE THAT CAN CHANGE EASILY
Spots and structures ought to be strong, flexible and equipped for being adjusted to new uses and ready to react to future social and innovative changes. This incorporates guaranteeing that structures and spaces address the necessities of everybody, and particularly those with pushchairs, individuals with handicaps and the old. A connected rule is the consolation of maintainable town centre advancement that is intended for vitality and asset productivity.
e) DIVERSITY OF USES – A TOWN CENTRE OFFERING VARIETY AND CHOICE
A town centre offers moderately simple access to a wide scope of offices. These attributes add to the achievement and allure of the town community as the assortment of employments and accommodation will decide how well it is utilized. In the event that the town community is to be effective later on it is significant that individuals should keep on having simple access to fluctuated offices, including shopping, relaxation, and work openings. Higher densities focussed on the town centre will help guarantee it stays exuberant, with neighborhood offices within reach.
Based on the readings from both articles above, to build or plan a successful town centre requires the following principles. This is because the concept of making a town centre is “work, live. shop ”, Therefore, the concept of walkable city and sustainable city is most appropriate. Being an advanced city centre also needs to take into account the development balance with the environment so that there is no competition between these two elements. In addition, each city must also consider the residential area in the area sufficiently to avoid squatter areas that would interfere with the planning of the city and the safety element is also important to ensure the well-being of the town centre. This principle can be applied in the future planning of the town of Kuah Town to be more advanced.
REQUIREMENTS OF A TOWN CENTER
The town center consists of commercial and services activity. The land use in the center of city provides job opportunity and contribute to economy status of the city. The identity of the town center can be determined by fulfill the requirement that been create in the standard guide planning. The requirement helps identify suitability for the city to become a town center. ( Pelan strategik guna tanah, Jun 2007).These divided into several to several hierarchies:
a) REGIONAL GROWTH CENTER
· A merger between several semi-regional centers.
· The population is over 100 000 people.
b) REGIONAL CENTER
· The city that serves as a supporter of the regional Growth Center
· The population is between 30,000 until 100 000 people.
c) MAIN SETTLEMENT CENTER
· The city that serves as the administrative center of the district and also a center that provides tertiary and secondary service facilities to residents.
· The population is between 10,000 until 30,000 people.
d) SMALL SETTLEMENT CENTER
· A small area which function to provide convenience at the primary level.
· The main target is to fully the local needs
· The population is between 5 000 to 10 000 people.
The requirement must be fulfilled to develop a town center. The city planned with the identity of town center need to be fairly and carefully prepared with the vision for long term period (Overview Of Key Town Center/Mixed‐Use Zoning Issues, August 2015). The requirement in the town center covered purpose and aim of use such as:
Pelan Strategik Guna Tanah, (2007) defines the existing of physical land use also must be protect especially sensitive areas such as wetland and natural habitat. The guide and manual that been provided must be follow to avoid the destruction and pollution during the development of town center such as :
a) The developer must maintain a gazetted forest reserve and an untested forest reserve and require maintenance.
b) The parties involved have to preserve and maintain the hill country is 76 meter high and has a slope of more than 25 degrees.
c) The authority ensures the maintenance of an existing agricultural area.
d) To protect the water catchment areas and water bodies from pollution.
e) To maintain coastal areas and river basins which provide source of clean water and fisheries.
f) To preserve areas of interest in tourism or historical heritage from destruction or demolish.
g) To protect and control aquaculture zone which known as one of income to the local and country.
According to Pelan strategik guna tanah, (2007) for the demand and supply for the needs of the people have to be well provided to counter the issues and problems such as health issues and shortage of life supply in facility. These are point of the requirement for town center in facilities:
a) INFRASTRUCTURE, UTILITIES AND FACILITIES:
· To provide adequate water and electricity supply for the community and daily activity of the city.
· To provides areas for managing solid waste, sewerage and drainage systems from the commercial and services activity.
· To provide more parking at certain place mostly at commercial area.
b) COMMUNICATION AND TRANSPORTATION NETWORKS:
· To prepare a comprehensive co-ordination at every state and territory level.
· To provide and well planned adequate public transport and also providing accurate cloud transportation travel.
· To improve taxi services, rental cars, water transportation and airplanes to travel from other places in same area.
c) INDUSTRY SECTOR:
· To develop strong economic, social and environmental areas.
· To balancing the type of industry in one place.
· To developing a modern and efficient small and medium-sized industry.
Ø To encourage a dynamic live, work or leisure environment to the society.
Ø To support civic and institutional uses in the city.
Ø To create active and secure pedestrian‐friendly settings for the accessibility for the local and visitors.
Ø To provide a variety range of housing types for every group of society.
Ø To offer a variety of retail and employment opportunities in economy sector.
ELEMENTS OF A TOWN CENTER
According to Atkins, Kelly G.(2005) in designing a town center, business district, and city center, planners with the help of expertise from many fields need an essential element to meet the needs of the community and stabilize the environment. The town centre is a geographical centre or core are of a town. Then, it is also the centre of communications with major public transport hubs such as central bus, railways or train.the town centre are symbolic to settlements as a whole and often contain the best examples of, main landmarks buildings. The three main groups in the town center is business centre, civic centre and light shopping center. All individual property buildings located in the urban area are elements of urban design. Among the elements found in urban areas are circulation, zoning, land use, economy development, housing and urban design.
a) CIRCULATION
According to Anderson, L. M. , Mulligan, B. E. , Goodman, L. S. , & Regen, H. Z. (1983) Circulation is the path people take through and around buildings or places in the city. Circulation is often referred to as 'space space', which has a function of connectivity. For a rapid growth of city, a good network of roads is essential. the city roads are the "arteries" of the city. The urban road system has many concepts which will be determine by the suitability at the physical features of the town city such as rectangular or grid iron system. This arrangement is an improvement on the Grid Iron Pattern. Diagonal road Provides direct communication between long distances. To essential to propose the concept must find diagonal points used for parks, parks, memorials and more. Besides that, the ring roads or circumferential roads are connected with radial roads. This patter is also known as Spider’s web system. The concentric ring is developed mainly due to removal of encircling walls and fortification. Other than that, the concentric and radial street system. The ring roads spring from the central civic centre like the spokes of a wheel. Such an arrangement increases the significance and importance of civic centre which may in the form of palace, market, public office buildings, historical monument. There are many measurement and function of the road circulation at Malaysia.
THIS CLASSIFICATION OF URBAN ROADS:
 |
| Concept of Iron Grid |
 | |
|
a) Highway/ Expressway -132 ft
b) Main roads/arterial roads. -66 ft
c) Secondary roads/ sub-arterial roads -50 ft
d) Local roads- 40 ft
b) ZONING
According to Scottish Executive (2006) Zonning is a device of land use regulation used by local governments in most developed countries. According to G. K. Hiraskar the zoning is defined as ‘process of making sections or division of city areas in different zones, to control the incompatible land uses, & prevent the misuse of land & buildings heights and densities of population at the initial stages. These are classification of zoning based on standard planning for town center:
· Residential zone (40-50%)
· Commercial zone (2-5%)
· Industrial zone (5-20%)
· Civic zone (2-3%)
· Institutional zone (1-2%)
· Recreational zone (15-20%)
The planner and developer must follow the regulation of the local authority provided such as municipalities direct the use of land, government’s control the physical development of purpose and objective of the development is to use the property for a common good. The detailed that involve in the development of town center will be explained below:
a) HEIGHT ZONING
To control the volume of building the height zoning is required. Tall buildings impair the value of small neighbouring houses by cutting off sunshine, air and breeze.
b) DENSITY ZONING.
The density of population may be either gross or net density. Gross density is the average density of population per unit land use area. Net density is the average density of the housing including local roads only.
c) URBAN DESIGN.
The built environment includes buildings, streets and elements is functions to shape to integrate the urban form. Urban design core objective is based from structural, functional and aesthetical form of planned and designed city (Moughtin, 1999). The relationship between people and the place could be established through visual perception and the senses with the urban design elements. It also became an important part to build the environment of a town centre.
According to Kevin Lynch (1960) has introduced elements of urban design from his research in a five-year study in Jersey City, Los Angeles and Boston on his observations of urban information and use it to create mental maps. Lynch's conclusion is that people form their mental maps an environment consisting of five basic elements. Five types of basic urban design elements people make their mental picture of the city as a street, edge, area, node and landmark.
d) RESIDENTIAL NEIGHBOURHOOD.
Development relationships between residential and urban areas are very tight. The design of the building depends on the height of the building near a single family area that creates a transition from city to city. At the same time, there are opportunities to expand the number and variety of residential options, especially around the city center, while maintaining affordability. Housing may differ significantly between, and through, residential areas. These include single-family housing, multi-family residences, or mobile homes. According to Bryson, (2017); Haarhoff et al., (2012) Zoning for residential use may include a number of services or employment opportunities or may include business and industry. In contexts where low-density suburban lifestyle remains the goal of aspiration.
FACTORS TOWN CENTRE
A successful town or city has a clear sense of direction and a widely shared vision.There are several factors that can make it a successful town centre.
a) SOCIAL ASPECTS
According to J.Adres Coca,(2013) urban planners especially need to keep in mind the history of the area’s buildings. Although a building may be in disrepair, it could be a historic site or landmark. City residents may want to preserve the area in favor of building a new strip mall. Shopping has become an element of leisure outings rather than the sole purpose of visits to town and city centres, so towns need to provide and measure much more than retail. Many towns and cities are managed has evolved considerably from a purely shopping-centred tactical approach to sophisticated multi-stakeholder strategic planning.
b) ECONOMY
Urban regeneration suggest that here has been a wide range of approaches to measuring town centre performance. These include more economically driven measures at one end of the spectrum and socially focused ones at other. Similarly, entrepreneurship, events, tourism and even retail often fulfil a number of roles that cannot be reduced to economic ouput alone.
c) ENVIRONMENT
According to Lothar Herrmann,(2013) more and more people will need water and electricity, the amount of waste will increase, traffic will worsen, and sewage systems will be strected to the limits of their capacity. All of these have the potential to negatively impact the environment and the economies of urban centres. That why a good planning for a good town centre is important to reduce pollution and so on.
ACTIVITIES OF A TOWN CENTRE
The activity center is a term used in urban planning and design for mixed-use urban areas where there is a focus on commercial and other land uses. According to Peter McNabb & Associates Pty Ltd (2001), ‘activity centres’ are places where people congregate to carry out business, study, recreate, socialise, shop and/or work. The Center of activity represents an important structural element of the metropolitan strategy whereby the center network is designed to encourage more equitable distribution of jobs, services, and facilities throughout the city. The term central activity can also be used to designate areas for mixed-use development, regardless of current land use. Activity centers can vary in size from the downtown area to commercial area to mall and surrounding area. They may also refer to a combination of special activities such as a university campus or a research institution.
There are four types of activities in town planning. These are mixed use development, services, social, and restaurant. These types of activities are things that are done in areas that attract people to shop, work, school, recreation and social. This is a town planning term that indicates a densely planned area.
a) MIXED USE DEVELOPMENT
Mixed-use development is characterized as a pedestrian-friendly development that combines two or more residential, commercial, cultural, institutional, and industrial uses. Mixed-use is one of the ten principles of Smart Growth, a planning strategy aimed at fostering design and community development that serves the economy, society, community health, and the environment.
b) SERVICES
Service is an invisible part of our economy, as a hostile commodity, which we will touch or control. Services, such as banking, education, medical care, and transportation make up most of the economies of rich countries. They also represent most of the economies of developing countries.
c) SOCIAL
Social activities gardening, cooking, art groups and include music. Outdoor activities include events such as shopping, dining out, theater trips and sailing. Our activity coordinator ensures that everyone has the opportunity to participate in interesting and fun activities. Everyone seems to be motivated to socialize, whether by relaxing in garden or meeting a friend at a cafe in our area.
d) THE RESTAURANT
Restaurant is a business that provides and serves food and drinks to customers. Food is generally served and eaten on-site, but many restaurants also offer take-away and delivery services. The restaurant and its variety vary, including fine cuisine and models ranging from cheap restaurants and cafes, mid-family restaurants, to high-end luxury restaurants.
THE BEST PRACTICES
According to Charles C. Bohl, 2003, Return of The Town Center in planning of the central business district (CBD), the characteristic and element of the concept must be diffuse into the existing land use and the planner have to seize the opportunity of physical surrounding which can be found at the site study. The issues and problems of the area usually sparks the ideas and produce solutions or initiatives by the planner to overcome the currents situation. The expertise from many field and planners will brainstorm and project any concept that can tackle down all the trouble and obstacle for long period term.
Singapore City
The best practices of the central business district can refer at the Singapore CBD. The city of Singapore consists of industrial area, variety of residential area and tourism sector which generate their economy income. The effect towards the country in commercial and services can reflect the economy of the country. The Singapore land well known with maximize and utilize the space and land use. Every inch of the land area is precious and must be utilized with multipurpose function if it can be possible because high density of population. The centre of the city is business and commercial area activity. The accessibility to every building and space can easily access by the public transportation and walkways. They promote the public transport services to the citizen to travel from one place to another place. The placemaking of the land use activity importance in order to stimulate the environment of surrounding which involve the daily life style of the folks and people.
Their late Prime Minister, Lee Kuan Yew directly involve the development of the city of Singapore. All the expertise joined together to realisation the limited land into the land which can maximize their liveness of the country for the people. The recreation activity also involves along the process of design. The Sentosa well known as tourist attraction with their landmark, Merlion that located nearby tourist accommodation. The Singaporean lived with the concept of “Design shaped our lives” based on the article of “Singapore: The Designed City” and becomes one of the best places to visit by the foreign visitors. It can be example for our country to follow in development of central business district which complement all aspect with every level group of society warfare and beneficiary.
CONCLUSION
The commercial and services activities of a central area that placed with proper consideration can generate the economy of the city and contribute back to the society. The connectivity of the places by linkage of road circulation is also an important role to the development town center. The public transportation must be friendly to the visitor and locals. The strategies and solution must be planned for a long-term period to ensure the environment not in polluted or harm in process of the development which can be effect to the health of society and the natural environment.
REFERENCES
Andrews, R. B. (1953). Mechanics of the urban economic base. historical development of the base concept. Land Economics, 29(2), pp. 161-167. Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/3144408
Associates, C. (2015). Key and issue option. Retrieved from https://smartgrowthamerica.org/app/legacy/documents/background-paper-knoxville-alcoa-rtpo-tn.pdf
Atkins, Kelly G. (2005). "Analysis of Town Center Mixed-Use Developments to Determine Key Retailer Success Factors. " Master's Thesis. University of Tennessee, United States. Retrieved from https://trace.tennessee.edu/utk_gradthes/581
Badovinac, P. (1997). Centralne urbane funkcije - centri, Arhitektonski fakultet Univerziteta u Beogradu, Beograd. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/47393641_City_center_organization_and_its_influence_on_the_city_structure
Beyard, Michael D. (2007). Ten Principles for Developing Successful Town Centers.
Beyard, Micheal D, Anita Kramer,Bruce Leonard,Micheal Pawlukiewicz, Dean Schwanke and Nora Yoo. (2007). Ten Principle for Developing Success-full Town Centres. Washington: ULI-the Urban Institute. Retrieved from http://uli.org/wp-content/uploads/ULI-Documents/TP_TownCentres.ashx_.pdf
Bohl, C. (2003). A Return of the Town Center. Wharton Real Estate Review. pp. 54-70. Retrieved from http://realestate.wharton.upenn.edu/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/440.pdf
Coca-Stefaniak, J. (2013). Successful Town Centres. Greenwich. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/261381195_Successful_town_centres
Council, C. B. (2000). Loughborough Town Centre Masterplan. Loughborough, England. Retrieved from https://www.charnwood.gov.uk/files/documents/loughborough_master_plan_march_2018/Loughborough%20Master%20Plan%20March%202018%20compressed.pdf
Council, T. H. (2017). Tower Hamlets Town Centre Strategy 2017 to 2022. Retrieved from https://www.towerhamlets.gov.uk/Documents/Planning-and-building-control/Strategic-Planning/Local-Plan/Town_Centre_Strategy_2017_2022.pdf
Dimarogonas, A. D. (1998). Synopsis: An Annual Index of Greek Studies. CRC Press. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.my/books?hl=en&lr=&id=WNyIp2iA81UC&oi=fnd&pg=PA1&dq=Dimarogonas,+A.+D.+(1998).+Synopsis:+An+Annual+Index+of+Greek+Studies,+1993,+3.+CRC+Press.&ots=5aZXqeQs7d&sig=37BZgwzn8Hc_AUhL9HLJxYjD2qg&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Dimarogonas%2C%2
Fogelson, R. M. (2003). Downtown: Its Rise and Fall, 1880–1950. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. Retrieved from https://www.amazon.com/Downtown-Its-Rise-Fall-18801950/dp/0300098278/ref=mt_paperback?_encoding=UTF8&me=
Framework, [. N. (2019, November 17). Town Centre Definition. Retrieved from https://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Town_centre_definition
Governance, M. o. (2011). Rancangan Struktur Negeri Kedah. Kedah. Retrieved from https://issuu.com/azrulsamat/docs/rancangan_struktur_negeri_kedah_202
Hartman, George W. (1950). "The Central Business District--A Study in Urban Geography". Economic Geography. 26 (4). Retrieved from https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.2307/141260
Herrmann, L. (2013). Successful Town Centres. Five factors that make cities greener. Retrieved from https://www.eco-business.com/opinion/five-factors-make-cities-greener/
Lewes. (2013, November 20 ). The Town Centre Local Plan. In Theme 2 : Town Centre Identity (p. 32). Eastbourne: Council, Eastbourne Borough. Retrieved from https://www.lewes-eastbourne.gov.uk/planning-policy/eastbourne-town-centre-local-plan/
Ltd, E. E. (2011). Activity Centre and Employment Planning. Growth Corridor Plans.
Ltd, Peter McNabb & Associates Pty. (2001). A study of policy and centres of activity in metropolitan Melbourne and Geelong.
Malaysia, D. o. (2007). Rancangan Struktur Negeri Pahang 2020. Retrieved from http://anyflip.com/ykjl/thpb/basic
Malaysia, D. o. (2007). Rancangan Struktur Negeri Pulau Pinang 2020. Pulau Pinang. Retrieved from http://jpbdgeoportal.penang.gov.my/jpbd/RSN/
Nolen, J. (1916). City Planning: A Series of Papers Presenting the Essential Elements of a City Plan. New York: Appleton and Company. Retrieved from http://urbanplanning.library.cornell.edu/DOCS/olmst_16.htm
Partnership, A City of Arlington and University of Texas at Arlington. (2011). Discover Downtown Arlington:. The Office of Community Relations.
Peter, L. L., & Yang, Y. (2019). Urban planning historical review of master plans and the way towards a sustainable city: Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Frontiers of Architectural Research. Tanzania. Retrieved from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2095263519300093
Space, J. (2017). Retrieved from 4 Types of Activity Center: https://simplicable.com/new/activity-center
Tang, B. S., & Choy, L. H. T. (2000). Modelling planning control decisions. a logistic regression analysis on office development applications in urban, pp. 219-225. Retrieved from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0264275100000147?casa_token=OQ7LBeXMfuIAAAAA:EPjbY5tFgi-vKpYnh0ZPTsWcj6oVcvxR2j-y_C5oA0o0w1lgUqGaNnRxM95Ot4t9O8TKZGndFwqB
No comments:
Post a Comment